Public Toilets (Foricae) and Sanitation in the Ancient Roman World : Case studies in Greece and North Africa

by: Merletto, A.P.

Public Toilets (Foricae) and Sanitation in the Ancient Roman World
Case studies in Greece and North Africa

Description
This monograph studies the architectural history of ancient public toilets, called foricae. Using comparative data and historical, archaeological and literary sources, this comprehensive analysis of foricae offers a deeper understanding of their origin in the Hellenistic period. It also examines their diffusion in the ancient Roman world through advances in hydraulic technology and building techniques. Foricae became characteristic features of many Roman cities, playing an important civic and hygienic role. The study of their features reveals various plans, of which the peristyle is undoubtedly the most original. The independent and freestanding peristyle forica of Kos (Greece) is the most opulent example, and the exhaustive survey of the peristyle foricae of the Hadrianic Baths of Lepcis Magna (Libya) and of Gortyn (Crete-Greece) prove the importance of this typology in the history of functional architecture in the Roman Empire.

AUTHOR
Antonella Patricia Merletto teaches History of Architecture and Archaeology at various American universities in Rome. She is also an independent researcher who has worked on various archaeological excavations in Greece.

REVIEWS
?A comprehensive treatise that is destined to become a classic in the field.? Professor David Deming, University of Oklahoma

?This book contributes new information to the field. It adds further knowledge to the broad coverage that is available.? Piers Mitchell, University of Cambridge

Contents
List of Figures...................................................................................................................................................................xi
List of Tables.................................................................................................................................................................xvii
Abstract.........................................................................................................................................................................xix
1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Research history....................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Overview of ancient hygienic practices................................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Latrina and forica: terminology............................................................................................................................... 6
1.4. The question of gender use in foricae ...................................................................................................................... 6
1.5. Why this book?.............................................................................................................................................................8
2. Archaeological evidence of ancient sanitation...........................................................................................................11
2.1. Forerunners ............................................................................................................................................................ 11
2.2. Greece and its colonies......................................................................................................................................... 12
2.3. Asia Minor.............................................................................................................................................................13
2.4. Italian peninsula ...................................................................................................................................................... 14
2.5. Ancient Greek and Roman urine and faecal containers......................................................................................... 15
2.5.1. Ancient Greek examples..............................................................................................................................15
2.5.2. Ancient Roman evidence .............................................................................................................................16
3. Water sources, drains and sewers.............................................................................................................................19
3.1. Water sources...........................................................................................................................................................19
3.2. The parts of a forica ............................................................................................................................................... 19
3.3. Water supply and disposal .....................................................................................................................................27
4. Building a forica .......................................................................................................................................................... 29
4.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 29
4.2. Design stage ........................................................................................................................................................... 29
4.2.1. Materials and workforce ............................................................................................................................. 32
4.2.2. Plan ............................................................................................................................................................. 32
4.2.3. Foundations.................................................................................................................................................. 33
4.2.4. The excreta channel .....................................................................................................................................33
4.2.5. Walls.............................................................................................................................................................34
4.2.6. Wall decoration ........................................................................................................................................... 36
4.2.7. Floors.......................................................................................................................................................... 38
4.2.8. Ceilings and roofs....................................................................................................................................... 40
4.2.9. Final elements............................................................................................................................................ 41
5. Foricae typologies...................................................................................................................................................... 43
5.1. Typologies.............................................................................................................................................................. 43
5.1.1. Square or rectangular plan ............................................................................................................................ 43
5.1.2. Peristyle plan ................................................................................................................................................ 44
5.1.3. Semicircular plan ........................................................................................................................................ 44
5.1.4. Geometric plan ............................................................................................................................................. 45
5.1.5. Asymmetric plan ........................................................................................................................................ 45
5.1.6. Undefined plan ............................................................................................................................................. 45
5.1.7. Uncertain attribution ................................................................................................................................... 45
5.2. Tables of data relevant to typology, geographic distribution, decorative features, and dates
of foricae of the ancient Greek and Roman world 45
5.2.1. Table 1. Plan Typology/Date ........................................................................................................................ 45
5.2.2. Table 2. Urban locations/Typology .............................................................................................................. 47
5.2.3. Table 3. Typology/Geographic location ....................................................................................................... 48
5.2.4. Table 4. Typology/decoration .......................................................................................................................48
5.3. Discussion .............................................................................................................................................................. 50
5.3.1. Place of origin and development ..................................................................................................................50
5.3.2. Italy & Rome ................................................................................................................................................53
5.3.3. Geographic diffusion and typologies in the High Roman Empire ............................................................... 55
5.3.4. Geographic diffusion and typologies in the Late Roman Empire ................................................................ 58
6. Development of the peristyle plan forica .................................................................................................................. 61
6.1. Definition ............................................................................................................................................................61
6.2. Brief summary of the evolution of peristyle buildings.......................................................................................... 61
6.3. Distinctive features of house peristylia found in foricae....................................................................................... 62
6.4. Archaeological evidence analysis .......................................................................................................................... 63
6.4.1. Table 1. Chronology ..................................................................................................................................... 63
6.4.2. Table 2. Distinctive features.........................................................................................................................64
6.4.3. Table 3. Geographic location .......................................................................................................................65
6.4.4. Analysis........................................................................................................................................................ 66
7. Case study A. Forica along the cardo of Kos town (Dodecanese-Greece).............................................................. 73
7.1. History of studies and excavations of Kos............................................................................................................. 73
7.2. Location in the ancient city.................................................................................................................................... 74
7.3. Description of the forica today ............................................................................................................................... 77
7.3.1. Exterior........................................................................................................................................................77
7.3.2. Interior.......................................................................................................................................................... 78
7.3.2.1. Entrance room ................................................................................................................................. 78
7.3.2.2. Room with peristyle courtyard........................................................................................................ 80
7.4. Archaeological evidence ........................................................................................................................................ 84
7.4.1. Interior .........................................................................................................................................................85
7.4.2. Exterior........................................................................................................................................................89
7.5. The anastylosis of the building .............................................................................................................................. 91
7.6. Water system and drainage ....................................................................................................................................94
7.6.1. The springs................................................................................................................................................... 94
7.6.2. Water distribution in ancient Kos................................................................................................................. 95
7.6.3. Water, drain and sewer systems in the western sectors of the city............................................................... 96
7.6.4. Plumbing, drainage and sewerage of the forica along the cardo ................................................................. 97
7.6.5. Later water structures................................................................................................................................... 99
7.7. Building and phases of use ....................................................................................................................................99
7.7.1. Before the forica........................................................................................................................................100
7.7.2. Phase 1 of the forica................................................................................................................................... 100
7.7.3. Monumental phases. Phases 2 and 3 .......................................................................................................... 102
7.7.4. Phase 4. Change of function and re-use ..................................................................................................... 106
7.7.4.1. Phase 4a. The re-use of the anteroom (vestibule) ......................................................................... 108
7.8. Conclusions.......................................................................................................................................................... 108
8. Case study B. Foricae of the Hadrianic Baths of Lepcis Magna (Libya)............................................................. 113
8.1. Historical introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 113
8.2. Travellers, surveys, and studies on Lepcis........................................................................................................... 113
8.3. Water and drainage management ......................................................................................................................... 116
8.3.1. The water source ........................................................................................................................................ 116
8.3.2. The aqueduct .............................................................................................................................................. 117
8.3.3. The archaeological evidence ...................................................................................................................... 117
8.4. The Hadrianic Baths ............................................................................................................................................ 121
8.4.1. Location and accesses ................................................................................................................................ 121
8.4.2. Bath plan and type...................................................................................................................................... 121
8.4.3. Building techniques.................................................................................................................................... 121
8.5. The foricae of the Hadrianic Baths...................................................................................................................... 121
8.5.1. Forica A................................................................................................................................................... 121
8.5.1.1. Graphic rendering of forica A ....................................................................................................... 130
8.5.2. Forica B ..................................................................................................................................................... 132
8.5.2.1. Graphic rendering of forica B....................................................................................................... 137
8.6. Analysis and discussion .......................................................................................................................................... 137
9. Case study C. Foricae of the Praetorium district in Gortyn (Crete-Greece) ...................................................... 149
9.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................... 149
9.2. Brief historical overview of Gortyn in Antiquity................................................................................................. 149
9.3. Water, drain, and sewer systems............................................................................................................................152
9.4. Foricae and their phases...................................................................................................................................... 155
9.4.1. The Latrina porticata near the Baths of the Praetorium area ......................................................................156
9.4.2. The forica vano 19 on the North Road (Street 1) .......................................................................................159
9.4.3. The forica vano 23 on the North Road (Street 1) .......................................................................................163
9.5. Analysis and discussion ........................................................................................................................................ 166
10. General Conclusions...............................................................................................................................................171
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................................... 177
Appendix 1. Ancient earthquakes relevant to the areas of the case study foricae....................................................197
A1.1. Kos (Greece) .....................................................................................................................................197
A1.2. Lepcis Magna (Libya) ...................................................................................................................... 199
A1.3. Gortyn (Crete, Greece)..................................................................................................................... 200
Appendix 2. Spolia in the forica of Kos along the cardo .............................................................................................. 203
A2.1. Other decorative and architectural elements present in the Kos forica ............................................ 210
Appendix 3. Catalogue of foricae ..................................................................................................................................213
A3.1. Introduction to the foricae catalogue ................................................................................................ 213
A3.2. Square or Rectangular ...................................................................................................................... 213
A3.3. Peristyle ............................................................................................................................................ 252
A3.4. Semicircular ......................................................................................................................................257
A3.5. Geometric ......................................................................................................................................... 261
A3.5.1. Simple Geometric................................................................................................................ 261
A.3.5.1.1. Half-ring ............................................................................................................. 261
A.3.5.1.2. Round ..................................................................................................................262
A.3.5.1.3. Hexagonal ............................................................................................................. 262
A.3.5.1.4. Octagonal .............................................................................................................. 262
A.3.5.1.5. Sigma ...................................................................................................................... 262
A.3.5.1.6. Trapezoid ............................................................................................................ 263
A.3.5.1.7. Elliptical ............................................................................................................... 267
A3.5.2. Composite Geometric.......................................................................................................... 267
A3.6. Asymmetric ...................................................................................................................................... 270
A3.7. Undefined ......................................................................................................................................... 273
A3.8. Uncertain Attribution ........................................................................................................................ 279
Location Index Foricae .................................................................................................................................................... 283

Public Toilets (Foricae) and Sanitation in the Ancient Roman World : Case studies in Greece and North Africa

by: Merletto, A.P.

• ISBN-13: 9781407360454 / 978-1-4073-6045-4
• ISBN-03: 1407360450 / 1-4073-6045-0
• Bar Publishing, Oxford, 2023